At The TIME Lab at the University of Arizona, each sample requires $460 to be fully processed, including associated expenses.

In total, to radiocarbon-date all 15 samples, we need $7,360, plus fundraising platform's fee ($883). Every dollar raised will go directly to laboratory analysis—no funds will be used for any other expenses not listed here.

If the project receives additional funding beyond the initial goal, we will use the extra resources to date additional cheekpiece samples (n=11) and animal bones and other organic materials from early horse-related contexts (n=84). This will contribute to a more refined chronological framework for understanding the development of early horse utilization.

Additional Information

The Role of Horses in Human History

Horses changed human history, revolutionizing transportation, warfare, and economies. However, the technologies that enabled horse-powered transport did not emerge immediately after domestication. Instead, both horse domestication and the development of related equipment underwent a long process of evolution, marked by trials and errors. One of the best markers of this process is the Bronze Age bone and antler cheekpieces (or bit shanks)—a key component of early bridles that functioned as the outer parts of soft bits pressing against a horse’s mouth and cheeks. They were key components of early bridles that allowed charioteers and riders to control horses without the use of metal bits. Classic bits and other metal bridle components were invented much later in history—perhaps 400–600 years after the origination of the bridle with soft bits and cheekpieces—yet they followed the same fundamental principles of horse control that were discovered in the early period.

The Studies and Evolution of Cheekpieces

To date, archaeologists have uncovered approximately 250 of these artifacts, some of which are directly associated with horse remains as parts of bridles. These finds spatially correlate and temporally partially overlap with what is demonstrated to be the region and period of initial horse domestication and early use—the Western Eurasian steppes during the Bronze Age (ca. 2800–1600 BCE). Additionally, extensive research has been conducted to understand how bone and antler cheekpieces were made, how they functioned in horse control, and how their design evolved, based on function, craftsmanship, and the stylistic preferences of their owners. Thus, experimental research has demonstrated that cheekpieces with soft bits effectively transmit rein pressure, allowing riders and charioteers to steer and stop horses. Wear patterns observed on experimental replicas correspond closely to those found by archaeologists on authentic artifacts, suggesting that the replicas accurately reflect the use and function of the original items.
Research has shown that during the Bronze Age, in the steppes, cheekpieces evolved in shape from solid, neatly decorated disc-like forms with three or four spikes, primarily made of antler, to rectangles made of animal bone with multiple spikes, and eventually to rod-shaped designs made of antler. This sequence has been established indirectly by analyzing the contexts in which these artifacts were found and their chronological relationships to one another. Researchers believe that these changes reflect significant shifts in horse utilization, especially since disk-like forms are often found in the same contexts as the earliest chariots and chariot horses, predating the chariots of 18th Dynasty Egypt and Mycenaean Greece by 400–600 years, while other shapes appear to be associated with ridden horses and domestic contexts.

The Need for Radiocarbon Dating and the Research Project

Previous cheekpiece studies have relied on indirect dating methods, such as stratigraphy and stylistic comparisons, however, due to the lack of radiocarbon dates, we cannot yet establish definitive chronological frameworks for each type of cheekpiece, making it difficult to determine the precise timing and speed at which these processes unfolded in the Western Eurasian steppes. As a result, despite nearly a century of research, we still lack a clear understanding of the sequence, reasons, and speed of horse transport development, which in turn limits our understanding of broader social and historical processes.

Sampled cheekpieces

Before the outbreak of Russian aggression in Ukraine, we collected samples in collaboration with museums in Russia and Kazakhstan, with full institutional authorization, sampling 15 randomly selected cheekpieces (approximately 6% of all known artifacts) for AMS radiocarbon dating. These artifacts were excavated from various sites across the steppes, including both the tombs of ancient military elites and ordinary dwellings, providing a diverse representation of early horse-related material culture. After the war began, we had to leave Russia, bringing this exceptional collection of samples with me to the United States.

The collection includes samples of material from all three major types of cheekpieces: ten shield-like artifacts primarily associated with chariot control, eight rectangular bone artifacts, and two rod-shaped objects. The disproportion in sample sizes partially reflects the actual distribution of these artifact types, with the shield-like form being the most numerous and widely spread across the steppes. Its decline may also correspond to the decline of chariot use and the shift toward horseback riding with simplified methods of control, as well as switching to metal bits.

To obtain material for radiocarbon dating, samples were collected using a controlled drilling method to minimize contamination. First, the surface of each artifact was carefully cleaned with a metal blade to remove any external contaminants. Then, an additional thin layer of material was removed using a 1-mm drill to ensure that only uncontaminated material was sampled. A small hole was drilled into the artifact, and the resulting shavings were collected on aluminum foil and wrapped. To prevent contamination, all work was conducted while wearing a respirator and latex gloves. This approach ensured the integrity of the collected material, aiming at reliable results of radiocarbon dating.

Contributor Recognition and Rewards

Every contributor will be personally thanked and acknowledged in the acknowledgment sections of all research papers resulting from this project, provided they wish to be mentioned by name. Additionally, every supporter will receive a digital copy of each published paper. If a book based on this research is ever published, all contributors will also receive a free copy as a token of appreciation for their support.

Statement on Ethical Research and Provenance of Samples

All samples in this study come from various museums in the Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan within their internationally recognized 1991 borders. All samples were collected with the full agreement of each museum, under their supervision and with their explicit permission, ensuring compliance with institutional regulations and ethical standards. No artifacts were obtained from illegally excavated sites or unauthorized research in occupied territories of Ukraine. Ethical research practices are strictly followed, ensuring that all materials are properly documented and legally sourced.